In 2005, Rubin tried to negotiate deals with Samsung[20] and HTC.[21] Shortly afterwards, Google acquired the company in July of that year for at least $50 million;[15][22] this was Google's "best deal ever" according to Google's then-vice president of corporate development, David Lawee, in 2010.[20] Android's key employees, including Rubin, Miner, Sears, and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition.[15] Not much was known about the secretive Android Inc. at the time, with the company having provided few details other than that it was making software for mobile phones.[15] At Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system.[23] Google had "lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation".[attribution needed][24]
The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools,[111] including a debugger, software libraries, a handset emulator based on QEMU, documentation, sample code, and tutorials. Initially, Google's supported integrated development environment (IDE) was Eclipse using the Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin; in December 2014, Google released Android Studio, based on IntelliJ IDEA, as its primary IDE for Android application development. Other development tools are available, including a native development kit (NDK) for applications or extensions in C or C++, Google App Inventor, a visual environment for novice programmers, and various cross platform mobile web applications frameworks. In January 2014, Google unveiled a framework based on Apache Cordova for porting Chrome HTML 5 web applications to Android, wrapped in a native application shell.[112] Additionally, Firebase was acquired by Google in 2014 that provides helpful tools for app and web developers.[113]
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Android's variant of the Linux kernel has further architectural changes that are implemented by Google outside the typical Linux kernel development cycle, such as the inclusion of components like device trees, ashmem, ION, and different out of memory (OOM) handling.[191][192] Certain features that Google contributed back to the Linux kernel, notably a power management feature called "wakelocks",[193] were initially rejected by mainline kernel developers partly because they felt that Google did not show any intent to maintain its own code.[194][195] Google announced in April 2010 that they would hire two employees to work with the Linux kernel community,[196] but Greg Kroah-Hartman, the current Linux kernel maintainer for the stable branch, said in December 2010 that he was concerned that Google was no longer trying to get their code changes included in mainstream Linux.[195] Google engineer Patrick Brady once stated in the company's developer conference that "Android is not Linux",[197] with Computerworld adding that "Let me make it simple for you, without Linux, there is no Android".[198] Ars Technica wrote that "Although Android is built on top of the Linux kernel, the platform has very little in common with the conventional desktop Linux stack".[197]
In August 2011, Linus Torvalds said that "eventually Android and Linux would come back to a common kernel, but it will probably not be for four to five years".[199] (that hasn't happened yet, while some code has been upstreamed, not all of it has, so modified kernels keep being used). In December 2011, Greg Kroah-Hartman announced the start of Android Mainlining Project, which aims to put some Android drivers, patches and features back into the Linux kernel, starting in Linux 3.3.[200] Linux included the autosleep and wakelocks capabilities in the 3.5 kernel, after many previous attempts at a merger. The interfaces are the same but the upstream Linux implementation allows for two different suspend modes: to memory (the traditional suspend that Android uses), and to disk (hibernate, as it is known on the desktop).[201] Google maintains a public code repository that contains their experimental work to re-base Android off the latest stable Linux versions.[202][203]
On top of the Linux kernel, there are the middleware, libraries and APIs written in C, and application software running on an application framework which includes Java-compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android's other source code projects.
The source code for Android is open-source: it is developed in private by Google, with the source code released publicly when a new version of Android is released. Google publishes most of the code (including network and telephony stacks) under the non-copyleft Apache License version 2.0. which allows modification and redistribution.[308][309] The license does not grant rights to the "Android" trademark, so device manufacturers and wireless carriers have to license it from Google under individual contracts. Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the copyleft GNU General Public License version 2, developed by the Open Handset Alliance, with the source code publicly available at all times.[310] The only Android release which was not immediately made available as source code was the tablet-only 3.0 Honeycomb release. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog post, was because Honeycomb was rushed for production of the Motorola Xoom,[311] and they did not want third parties creating a "really bad user experience" by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.[312]
More than 2 million years ago in East Africa, the earliest hominin stone tools evolved amidst changes in resource base, with pounding technology playing a key role in this adaptive process. Olduvai Gorge (now Oldupai) is a famed locality that remains paramount for the study of human evolution, also yielding some of the oldest battering tools in the world. However, direct evidence of the resources processed with these technologies is lacking entirely. One way to obtain this evidence is through the analysis of surviving residues. Yet, linking residues with past processing activities is not simple. In the case of plant exploitation, this link can only be established by assessing site-based reference collections inclusive of both anthropogenic and natural residues as a necessary first step and comparative starting point. In this paper, we assess microbotanical remains from rock clasts sourced at the same quarry utilized by Oldowan hominins at Oldupai Gorge. We mapped this signal and analysed it quantitatively to classify its spatial distribution objectively, extracting proxies for taxonomic identification and further comparison with freestanding soils. In addition, we used blanks to manufacture pounding tools for blind, controlled replication of plant processing. We discovered that stone blanks are in fact environmental reservoirs in which plant remains are trapped by lithobionts, preserved as hardened accretions. Tool use, on the other hand, creates residue clusters; however, their spatial distribution can be discriminated from purely natural assemblages by the georeferencing of residues and statistical analysis of resulting patterns. To conclude, we provide a protocol for best practice and a workflow that has the advantage of overcoming environmental noise, reducing the risk of false positive, delivering a firm understanding of residues as polygenic mixtures, a reliable use of controls, and most importantly, a stronger link between microbotanical remains and stone tool use.
The environmental signal on experimental tools, inherited from Oldupai Gorge and made up of diatoms, palynomorphs, phytoliths, and starch granules, now sees added proxies from technical and experimental processing actions, as well as cross contamination, confounding the original fingerprint to create a statistically different assemblage from both non-anthropogenic rocks and freestanding soils (Supplementary Table 15). These new indicators include starch granules from published contaminants in starch research, such as maize and wheat33, along with the starches themselves employed for the experiment: spheroids, as active pounding components, retained starches from the cactus fruit, but we could not retrieve hazelnut starch from the spheroid that cracked open hazelnuts. Cross contamination from experimental and environmental starch granules is apparent in all spheroids, including those used to deal with animal tissue. Regarding anvils, we could not retrieve cactus starches from the stone piece dedicated to cactus processing, while the anvils involving potato and hazelnut did produce their respective starches and cross contaminants.
Phytogenic materials accumulating on natural rocks are many and diverse: They include phytoliths, starch granules, diatoms, sponge spicules, and non-pollen palynomorphs. Currently, it remains difficult to ascertain clear links between microbotanical remains extracted from artifacts and ancient use because the chain of evidence to discriminate function-related from natural residues pends on a weak link, and hence establishing whether residues detected on stone tools have to do with prehistoric use is challenging57,58. Our study is the first baseline of natural coatings from rock samples across the landscape of Oldupai Gorge, a World Heritage Site. We studied a large set of natural rocks rather than archaeological lithics to eliminate human intervention as cause for any residue pattern or microbotanical accumulation, other than those from replication and experimental utilization. Considering the ambitious and time-consuming endeavor of this initial task, a systematic comparison of residues with use-wear analysis on spheroids and anvils is beyond the scope of this article. Our only goal at this time is to outline protocols for Oldowan tools, as dictated by evidence from natural stone counterparts. This referential serves to remove the uncontrollable introduction of environmental signals when discriminating function/palaeodiet from ecological context. Failure to account for these will inevitably result in flawed data and misinterpretation of both natural controls and archaeological cases. Our dataset is also the largest assemblage of microbotanical remains explicitly generated to guide archaeologists in the interpretation of environmental noise in Early Stone Age pounding tools. 2ff7e9595c
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